Ngaphambi kokuba izifo zitshabalalise izifo ezimalunga neebhiliyoni ezintathu nangaphezulu, lo mthi wanceda ekwakheni iMelika ephucukileyo. Ukuze sibuyisele uzuko lwayo olulahlekileyo, kusenokufuneka samkele kwaye silungise indalo.
Ngaxa lithile ngo-1989, uHerbert Darling wafumana umnxeba: Umzingeli wamxelela ukuba udibene nomthi omde we-chestnut waseMelika kwindawo kaDarling eZor Valley entshona yeNew York. UDarling wayesazi ukuba ii-chestnut zazingomnye wemithi ebalulekileyo kuloo ndawo. Wayesazi nokuba i-fungus ebulalayo yayiphantse yatshabalalisa olu hlobo lwesityalo kangangeminyaka engaphezu kwenkulungwane enesiqingatha. Xa weva ingxelo yomzingeli ngokubona i-chestnut ephilayo, isiqu se-chestnut sasiziimitha ezimbini ubude kwaye safikelela kwisakhiwo esinemigangatho emihlanu, wayithandabuza loo nto. “Andiqinisekanga ukuba ndikholelwa ukuba uyazi ukuba yintoni na,” utshilo uDarling.
Xa uDarling wafumana umthi, kwakungathi ujonge umfanekiso wentsomi. Wathi: “Bekuthe ngqo kwaye kugqibelele ukwenza umzekelo—bekumnandi kakhulu.” Kodwa uDarling wabona nokuba umthi uyafa. Ukususela ekuqaleni kweminyaka yoo-1900, uye wahlaselwa yintsholongwane efanayo, eqikelelwa ukuba ibangele ukufa kwabantu abaziibhiliyoni ezi-3 nangaphezulu ngenxa yezifo ezinjalo. Esi sisifo sokuqala esithwalwa ngabantu esitshabalalisa imithi kwimbali yanamhlanje. UDarling wacinga ukuba, ukuba ebengenakuwusindisa loo mthi, ubuncinci ebeya kusindisa imbewu yawo. Kukho ingxaki enye kuphela: umthi awenzi nto kuba akukho mithi ye-chestnut ekufutshane enokuyivundisa.
UDarling yinjineli esebenzisa iindlela zobunjineli ukusombulula iingxaki. NgoJuni olandelayo, xa iintyatyambo ezimthubi ezikhanyayo zazisasazeke eluphahleni oluluhlaza lomthi, uDarling wagcwalisa iimbumbulu ngomgubo wesibhamu, owathathwa kwiintyatyambo zesilisa zomnye umthi we-chestnut awayewufundile, waza waqhuba waya emantla. Kwathabatha iyure enesiqingatha. Wadubula umthi kwi-helikopta eqeshiweyo. (Uqhuba inkampani yokwakha ephumelelayo enokuhlawula imali eninzi.) Lo mzamo awuphumelelanga. Kunyaka olandelayo, uDarling wazama kwakhona. Ngeli xesha, yena nonyana wakhe barhuqa i-scaffolding baya kwii-chestnut encotsheni yenduli baza bakha iqonga eliphakame ngeenyawo ezingama-80 kwiiveki ezingaphezu kweeveki ezimbini. Intombi yam yakhwela eluphahleni yaza yahlamba iintyatyambo ngeentyatyambo ezifana nempethu komnye umthi we-chestnut.
Ngaloo ntwasahlobo, amasebe omthi kaDarling avelisa imithana egqunywe ngameva aluhlaza. La meva ayemakhulu kwaye ebukhali kangangokuba asenokuphambaniswa ne-cacti. Isivuno asiphezulu, kukho malunga ne-100 yamantongomane, kodwa uDarling utyale amanye waza wabeka ithemba. Yena nomhlobo wakhe banxibelelane noCharles Maynard noWilliam Powell, iingcali zemfuza yemithi ezimbini kwiYunivesithi yaseNew York yeSayensi yeNdalo kunye naMahlathi eSyracuse (uChuck noBill basweleka). Kutshanje baqalise iprojekthi yophando lwe-chestnut olungenaxabiso liphantsi apho. UDarling wabanika ii-chestnut waza wabuza izazinzulu ukuba zingazisebenzisa na ukuzibuyisela. UDarling wathi: “Oku kubonakala ngathi yinto entle kakhulu.” “Yonke impuma ye-United States.” Nangona kunjalo, kwiminyaka embalwa kamva, umthi wakhe wafa.
Ukususela oko abantu baseYurophu baqala ukuhlala eMntla Melika, ibali malunga namahlathi elizwekazi liye laba yilahleko enkulu. Nangona kunjalo, isindululo sikaDarling ngoku sithathwa ngabaninzi njengelinye lamathuba athembisayo okuqala ukuhlaziya ibali - ekuqaleni kwalo nyaka, iTempleton World Charity Foundation yabeka iprojekthi kaMaynard noPowell's The project ukuba inike uninzi lwembali yayo, kwaye lo mzamo wakwazi ukuphelisa umsebenzi omncinci obize ngaphezulu kwe-3 yezigidi zeerandi. Yayisisipho esikhulu kunazo zonke esakha sanikelwa eyunivesithi. Uphando lweengcali zemfuza lunyanzela iingcali zendalo ukuba zijongane nombono ngendlela entsha kwaye ngamanye amaxesha engonwabisiyo, yokuba ukulungisa ihlabathi lendalo akuthethi ukubuyela kwiGadi yase-Eden ephilileyo. Kunoko, kunokuthetha ukwamkela indima esiyithathileyo: injineli yayo yonke into kuquka nendalo.
Amagqabi e-chestnut made kwaye anamazinyo, kwaye abonakala ngathi ziincakuba ezimbini ezincinci eziluhlaza ezidityaniswe ngasemva kumthambo ophakathi wegqabi. Kwelinye icala, amagqabi amabini adityaniswe nesiqu. Kwelinye icala, enza incam ebukhali, edla ngokugotywa ecaleni. Le milo ingalindelekanga inqumla kwiindunduma eziluhlaza nezithe cwaka zesanti emahlathini, kwaye amaphupha amangalisayo abantu abahamba ngeenyawo avusa ingqalelo yabantu, ebakhumbuza ngohambo lwabo ehlathini elalinemithi emininzi enamandla.
Kuphela ngoncwadi kunye nenkumbulo esinokuyiqonda ngokupheleleyo le mithi. ULucille Griffin, umlawuli ophetheyo we-American Chestnut Collaborator Foundation, wakha wabhala ukuba apho uza kubona ii-chestnut zityebile kangangokuba entwasahlobo, iintyatyambo ezithambileyo, ezithe nkqo emthini “ezifana namaza anegwebu aqengqeleka ezantsi kwentaba”, nto leyo ekhokelela kwiinkumbulo zikatatomkhulu. Ekwindla, umthi uza kuphinda uqhume, ngeli xesha une-prickly burrs ezigquma ubumnandi. “Xa ii-chestnut zazivuthiwe, ndaqokelela isiqingatha se-bushel ebusika,” wabhala uThoreau onomdla kwi-“Walden.” “Ngelo xesha, kwakumnandi kakhulu ukuhambahamba kwihlathi le-chestnut elingapheliyo eLincoln ngelo xesha.”
Iitshestnuts zithembekile kakhulu. Ngokungafaniyo nemithi ye-oki ewisa ii-acorn kuphela kwiminyaka embalwa, imithi ye-chestnut ivelisa inani elikhulu lezityalo zeenati rhoqo ekwindla. Iitshestnuts nazo kulula ukuzicola: ungazixobula uze utye enye eluhlaza. (Zama ukusebenzisa ii-acorns ezityebileyo kwiitannins - okanye ungazenzi.) Wonke umntu utya iichestnuts: inyamakazi, i-squirrel, ibhere, intaka, umntu. Abalimi bayeka iihagu zabo baze batyebe ehlathini. Ngexesha leKrisimesi, oololiwe abazele ziichestnuts babehamba besuka ezintabeni besiya esixekweni. Ewe, ngokwenene babetshiswa ngumlilo. “Kuthiwa kwezinye iindawo, abalimi bafumana ingeniso engaphezulu ngokuthengiswa kweechestnuts kunayo yonke eminye imveliso yezolimo,” utshilo uWilliam L. Bray, umphathi wokuqala wesikolo apho uMaynard noPowell babesebenza khona kamva. Yabhalwa ngo-1915. Ngumthi wabantu, uninzi lwawo lukhula ehlathini.
Ikwabonelela ngezinto ezingaphezulu nje kokutya. Imithi ye-chestnut inokuphakama iye kwiimitha ezili-120, kwaye iinyawo zokuqala ezingama-50 aziphazanyiswa ngamasebe okanye amaqhina. Eli liphupha labahlabi bemithi. Nangona ingeyiyo imithi emihle kakhulu kwaye ingeyona yomeleleyo, ikhula ngokukhawuleza, ingakumbi xa iphinda ihlume emva kokunqunyulwa kwaye ingaboli. Njengoko ukuqina kweentambo zikaloliwe kunye neepali zefowuni kudlula ubuhle, i-Chestnut yanceda ekwakheni iMelika ephucukileyo. Amawaka eebhari, iikhabhini kunye neecawa ezenziwe ngee-chestnut zisamile; umbhali ngo-1915 waqikelela ukuba le yeyona mithi inqunyulwe kakhulu e-United States.
Kwinkoliso yemimandla yasempuma- imithi isukela eMississippi ukuya eMaine, kwaye ukusuka kunxweme lweAtlantiki ukuya kuMlambo iMississippi- ii-chestnuts nazo ziphakathi kwazo. Kodwa kuma-Appalachians, yayingumthi omkhulu. Iibhiliyoni zee-chestnut zihlala kwezi ntaba.
Kuyafaneleka ukuba iFusarium wilt ivele okokuqala eNew York, eli lisango lokungena kubantu abaninzi baseMelika. Ngo-1904, kwafunyanwa usulelo olungaqhelekanga kwixolo lomthi we-chestnut osengozini yokuphela kwiBronx Zoo. Abaphandi bakhawuleza bafumanisa ukuba i-fungus eyabangela i-bacterial blight (eyathi kamva yabizwa ngokuba yiCryphonectria parasitica) yafika kwimithi yaseJapan engeniswe kwamanye amazwe kwasekuqaleni kowe-1876. (Kudla ngokubakho ixesha elide phakathi kokungeniswa kohlobo oluthile kunye nokufunyanwa kweengxaki ezicacileyo.)
Kungekudala abantu kumazwe aliqela baxela ukuba imithi iyafa. Ngo-1906, uWilliam A. Murrill, ingcali yezifo zezityalo kwiGadi yeZityalo yaseNew York, wapapasha inqaku lokuqala lesayensi ngesi sifo. UMuriel wabonisa ukuba le fungus ibangela usulelo lwe-blister olumthubi-mdaka kwixolo lomthi we-chestnut, nto leyo ekugqibeleni eyenza ukuba icoceke ijikeleze isiqu. Xa izondlo namanzi zingasakwazi ukuhamba phezulu nasezantsi kwimithambo yexolo phantsi kwexolo, yonke into engaphezulu kwendandatho yokufa iya kufa.
Abanye abantu abanakukwazi ukucinga—okanye abafuni abanye bacinge—ngomthi onyamalala ehlathini. Ngo-1911, iSober Paragon Chestnut Farm, inkampani yabantwana abancinci ePennsylvania, yayikholelwa ukuba esi sifo “singaphezulu nje koloyiko.” Ubukho bexesha elide beentatheli ezingakhathaliyo. Ifama yavalwa ngo-1913. Kwiminyaka emibini eyadlulayo, iPennsylvania yabiza ikomiti yesifo se-chestnut, eyagunyazisa ukuchitha i-US $275,000 (imali eninzi ngelo xesha), yaza yabhengeza iphakheji yamandla okuthatha amanyathelo okulwa nale ntlungu, kuquka nelungelo lokutshabalalisa imithi kwipropathi yabucala. Iingcali zezifo zicebisa ukususa yonke imithi ye-chestnut kwiimayile ezimbalwa ukusuka ngaphambili kosulelo oluphambili ukuvelisa isiphumo sokuthintela umlilo. Kodwa kwavela ukuba le fungus inokutsibela kwimithi engosulelekanga, kwaye ii-spores zayo zosulelwe ngumoya, ziintaka, izinambuzane kunye nabantu. Isicwangciso sayekwa.
Ngo-1940, phantse akukho zinambuzane zinkulu ezazisulelekile. Namhlanje, ixabiso leebhiliyoni zeerandi liphelile. Njengoko i-fusarium wilt ingenakuphila emhlabeni, iingcambu ze-chestnut ziyaqhubeka nokuhluma, kwaye ngaphezulu kwezigidi ezingama-400 zazo zisasele ehlathini. Nangona kunjalo, i-Fusarium wilt ifumene indawo yokugcina amanzi kumthi we-oki apho yayihlala khona ngaphandle kokubangela umonakalo omkhulu kumnini wayo. Ukusuka apho, isasazeka ngokukhawuleza ukuya kumahlumela amatsha e-chestnut ize iwabuyisele emhlabeni, ngokuqhelekileyo ixesha elide ngaphambi kokuba afikelele kwinqanaba lokudubula.
Ishishini lemithi lifumene ezinye iindlela: um-oki, ipayini, i-walnut, kunye nothuthu. Ukuthunga, elinye ishishini elikhulu elixhomekeke kwimithi ye-chestnut, litshintshele kwiiarhente zokuthunga ezenziweyo. Kwabalimi abaninzi abahlwempuzekileyo, akukho nto inokutshintshwa: akukho mithi yemveli enika abalimi kunye nezilwanyana zabo iikhalori kunye neeproteni zasimahla, ezinokuthenjwa nezininzi. I-chestnut blight inokuthiwa iphelisa umkhwa oqhelekileyo wezolimo oluzimeleyo lwama-Appalachian, inyanzela abantu kulo mmandla ukuba babe nokukhetha okucacileyo: ukuya kumgodi wamalahle okanye ukufuduka. Isazi-mbali uDonald Davis wabhala ngo-2005: “Ngenxa yokufa kwama-chestnut, lonke ihlabathi lifile, lisusa amasiko okusinda abekho kwiiNtaba zase-Appalachian kangangeminyaka engaphezu kwamakhulu amane.”
UPowell wakhulela kude kakhulu nabantu baseAppalachian kunye neechestnuts. Uyise wayesebenza kwi-Air Force waza wafudukela kusapho lwakhe: e-Indiana, eFlorida, eJamani, nakunxweme olusempuma yeMaryland. Nangona wachitha umsebenzi wakhe eNew York, iintetho zakhe zagcina ukunyaniseka kweMidwest kunye nokukhetha okuncinci kodwa okubonakalayo kweSouth. Isimilo sakhe esilula kunye nesimbo sakhe sokuthunga esilula ziyahambelana, zibonisa iijini ezineehempe ezibonakala zingenasiphelo. I-interjection yakhe ayithandayo yi "wow".
UPowell uceba ukuba ngugqirha wezilwanyana de uprofesa wezofuzo amthembise ithemba lezolimo ezintsha, eziluhlaza ezisekelwe kwizityalo eziguqulwe ngokwezakhi zofuzo ezinokuvelisa amandla azo okuthintela izinambuzane nezifo. “Ndicinge ukuba, wow, akulunganga ukwenza izityalo ezinokuzikhusela kwizinambuzane, kwaye akufuneki uzitshize naziphi na izibulali-zinambuzane kuzo?” utshilo uPowell. “Ewe kona, lonke ihlabathi alilandeli ngcamango inye.”
Xa uPowell wafika kwisikolo sokugqibela kwiYunivesithi yaseUtah State ngo-1983, akazange akhathazeke. Nangona kunjalo, kwenzeka ukuba ajoyine ilebhu yesazi sebhayoloji, kwaye wayesebenza kwintsholongwane eyayinokuphelisa ukungunda. Imizamo yabo yokusebenzisa le ntsholongwane ayizange ihambe kakuhle: ayizange isasazeke ukusuka emthini ukuya komnye, ngoko ke kwafuneka yenziwe ngokwezifiso kwiintlobo ezininzi zefungus. Nangona kunjalo, uPowell wayenomdla kwibali lomthi omkhulu owa phantsi waza wabonelela ngesisombululo sesayensi sokwenzeka kweempazamo ezibuhlungu ezenziwe ngabantu. Wathi: “Ngenxa yokulawulwa kakubi kweempahla zethu ezihambahamba kwihlabathi liphela, singenise ngempazamo iintsholongwane.” “Ndacinga: Wow, oku kunomdla. Kukho ithuba lokukubuyisela.”
UPowell wayengengomzamo wokuqala wokuphelisa ilahleko. Emva kokuba kucacile ukuba ii-chestnut zaseMelika zaziza kusilela, i-USDA yazama ukutyala imithi ye-chestnut yaseTshayina, umzala wayo okwaziyo ukumelana nokubuna, ukuze iqonde ukuba olu hlobo lunokuthatha indawo yee-chestnut zaseMelika. Nangona kunjalo, ii-chestnut zikhula kakhulu ngaphandle, kwaye zifana nemithi yeziqhamo kunemithi yeziqhamo. Zazincinci ehlathini yimithi ye-oki kunye nezinye iingxilimbela zaseMelika. Ukukhula kwazo kuyathintelwa, okanye ziyafa nje. Izazinzulu nazo zazama ukuvelisa ii-chestnut ezivela eMelika naseTshayina kunye, zinethemba lokuvelisa umthi oneempawu ezintle zazo zombini. Imizamo karhulumente yawa phantsi kwaye yayekwa.
UPowell wagqibela esebenza kwiYunivesithi yaseNew York kwiSikolo seSayensi yeNdalo kunye naMahlathi, apho wadibana khona noChuck Maynard, ingcali yemfuza eyatyala imithi kwilebhu. Kwiminyaka embalwa eyadlulayo, izazinzulu zenze isicwili sokuqala sesityalo esiguqulwe ngokwemfuza-zongeza i-gene enika ukumelana namayeza okubulala iintsholongwane kwicuba ukuze kuboniswe ngobugcisa endaweni yokusetyenziswa kwezorhwebo. UMaynard (uMaynard) waqala ukungena kwiteknoloji entsha, ngelixa efuna ubuchwepheshe obuluncedo obunxulumene nayo. Ngelo xesha, uDarling wayenembewu kunye nomceli mngeni: ukulungisa ii-chestnut zaseMelika.
Kwiminyaka emininzi yeendlela zokuzala izityalo zemveli, abalimi (kunye noososayensi bakutshanje) baye badibanisa iintlobo ngeentlobo ezineempawu ezifunwayo. Emva koko, ii-genes zixutywa ngokwendalo, kwaye abantu bakhetha imixube ethembisayo yomgangatho ophezulu-iziqhamo ezinkulu, ezimnandi ngakumbi okanye ukumelana nezifo. Ngokwesiqhelo, kuthatha izizukulwana ezininzi ukuvelisa imveliso. Le nkqubo icotha kwaye iyabhidisa kancinci. UDarling wayezibuza ukuba le ndlela ingavelisa umthi olungileyo njengendalo yakhe yasendle. Undixelele wathi: “Ndicinga ukuba singenza ngcono.”
Ubunjineli bemfuza buthetha ulawulo oluphezulu: nokuba i-gene ethile ivela kwintlobo engadibaniyo, inokukhethwa ngenjongo ethile ize ifakwe kwi-genome yesinye isidalwa esiphilayo. (Izinto eziphilayo ezine-gene ezivela kwiintlobo ezahlukeneyo "ziguqulwa ngokwemfuza." Kutshanje, izazinzulu ziye zaphuhlisa iindlela zokuhlela ngokuthe ngqo i-genome yezinto eziphilayo ekujoliswe kuzo.) Le teknoloji ithembisa ukuchaneka kunye nesantya esingazange sibonwe ngaphambili. UPowell ukholelwa ukuba oku kubonakala kufanelekile kakhulu kwii-chestnut zaseMelika, azibiza ngokuba "yimithi ephantse igqibelele" - ezomeleleyo, ezinde, kwaye zityebile kwimithombo yokutya, ezifuna kuphela ukulungiswa okuthe ngqo: ukumelana ne-bacterial blight.
Ndiyavuma kakhulu. Uthe: “Kufuneka sibe neenjineli kwishishini lethu.” “Ukusuka kulwakhiwo ukuya kulwakhiwo, olu luhlobo nje loomatshini abasebenza ngokuzenzekelayo.”
UPowell noMaynard baqikelela ukuba kungathatha iminyaka elishumi ukufumana iijini ezinika ukumelana, ukuphuhlisa ubuchwepheshe bokuzifaka kwi-genome ye-chestnut, uze uzikhulise. “Siyaqikelela nje,” utshilo uPowell. “Akukho mntu unejini ezinika ukumelana nokungunda. Siqale kwindawo engenanto.”
IDarling ifune inkxaso kwi-American Chestnut Foundation, umbutho ongenzi nzuzo owasekwa ekuqaleni kweminyaka yoo-1980. Inkokeli yawo yamxelela ukuba ulahlekile. Bazimisele ekudibaniseni kwaye bahlala belumkile malunga nobunjineli bemfuza, nto leyo eye yabangela inkcaso evela kubagcini bendalo. Ngenxa yoko, uDarling wadala umbutho wakhe ongenzi nzuzo ukuze axhase umsebenzi wobunjineli bemfuza. UPowell uthe umbutho ubhale itshekhi yokuqala kuMaynard noPowell nge-$30,000. (Ngowe-1990, umbutho wesizwe waguqula waza wamkela iqela likaDarling elalifuna ukuhlukana njengesebe lawo lokuqala likarhulumente, kodwa amanye amalungu ayesathandabuza okanye echasene ngokupheleleyo nobunjineli bemfuza.)
UMaynard noPowell basebenza. Phantse kwangoko, ixesha labo eliqikelelweyo labonakala lingenakwenzeka. Umqobo wokuqala kukufumanisa indlela yokukhulisa ii-chestnut kwilebhu. UMaynard wazama ukuxuba amagqabi e-chestnut kunye ne-growth hormone kwisitya seplastiki esingqukuva esingajulileyo, indlela esetyenziselwa ukukhulisa ii-poplar. Kwavela ukuba oku akunakwenzeka. Imithi emitsha ayizukuhluma iingcambu kunye namahlumela avela kwiiseli ezikhethekileyo. UMaynard uthe: “Ndingumkhokeli wehlabathi ekubulaleni imithi ye-chestnut.” Umphandi kwiYunivesithi yaseGeorgia, uScott Merkle (Scott Merkle) ekugqibeleni wafundisa uMaynard indlela yokutshintsha ukusuka ekuvuvuzeleni ukuya kwi-Plant chestnut kwi-embryos kwinqanaba lokukhula.
Ukufumana i-gene efanelekileyo-umsebenzi kaPowell-kwaye kwaba nzima. Wachitha iminyaka eliqela ephanda nge-compound elwa neentsholongwane esekelwe kwi-genes zesele, kodwa wayiyeka le compound ngenxa yenkxalabo yokuba uluntu lusenokungayamkeli imithi enamasele. Wakhangela ne-gene elwa ne-bacterial blight kwi-chestnut, kodwa wafumanisa ukuba ukukhusela umthi kubandakanya ii-genes ezininzi (bachonge ubuncinane ezintandathu). Emva koko, ngo-1997, umntu asebenza naye wabuya kwintlanganiso yesayensi waza wadwelisa isishwankathelo kunye nomboniso. UPowell waphawula isihloko esithi "Ukubonakaliswa kwe-oxalate oxidase kwizityalo eziguqulweyo kunika ukumelana ne-oxalate kunye ne-oxalate-producing fungi". Ukusuka kuphando lwakhe lwe-virus, uPowell wayesazi ukuba i-wilt fungi ikhupha i-oxalic acid ukubulala i-chestnut bark kwaye yenze kube lula ukuyigaya. UPowell waqonda ukuba ukuba i-chestnut inokuvelisa i-oxalate oxidase yayo (iproteni ekhethekileyo enokuqhekeza i-oxalate), ngoko inokukwazi ukuzikhusela. Wathi: "Leyo yayilixesha lam le-Eureka."
Kuvele ukuba izityalo ezininzi zine-gene evumela ukuba zivelise i-oxalate oxidase. Kumphandi owenze intetho, uPowell wafumana uhlobo lwengqolowa. Umfundi ophumelele isidanga uLinda Polin McGuigan uphucule ubuchwepheshe be-"gene gun" bokuqalisa ii-genes kwi-chestnut embryos, enethemba lokuba zinokufakwa kwi-DNA ye-embryo. I-gene yahlala okwethutyana kwi-embryo, kodwa yanyamalala. Iqela lophando layishiya le ndlela laza latshintshela kwi-bacteria eyayikade iphuhlisa indlela yokuqhekeza i-DNA yezinye izinto eziphilayo kwaye ifake ii-genes zazo. Kwindalo, ii-microorganisms zongeza ii-genes ezinyanzela umninimzi ukuba enze ukutya kwebhaktiriya. Iingcali ze-genetics zahlasela le bhaktiriya ukuze ikwazi ukufaka nayiphi na i-gene ayifunayo usosayensi. UMcGuigan wafumana amandla okongeza ngokuthembekileyo ii-genes zengqolowa kunye nee-marker proteins kwi-chestnut embryos. Xa iproteni ikhanyiswe phantsi kwe-microscope, iproteni iya kukhupha ukukhanya okuluhlaza, okubonisa ukufakwa ngempumelelo. (Iqela layeka ngokukhawuleza ukusebenzisa ii-marker proteins-akukho mntu wayefuna umthi onokukhanya.) UMaynard wabiza le ndlela ngokuthi "yeyona nto intle kakhulu emhlabeni."
Ekuhambeni kwexesha, uMaynard noPowell bakha umgca wokuhlanganisa i-chestnut, ngoku ofikelela kwimigangatho eliqela yesakhiwo sophando lwamahlathi esimangalisayo seminyaka yoo-1960, kunye nesakhiwo esitsha esikhazimlayo se-"Biotech Accelerator" esingaphandle kwekhampasi. Inkqubo kuqala ibandakanya ukukhetha ii-embryo ezihluma kwiiseli ezifanayo ngokwemfuza (uninzi lwee-embryo ezenziwe elebhu azenzi oku, ngoko ke akuncedi ukwenza ii-clones) kunye nokufaka ii-genes zengqolowa. Ii-embryonic cells, njenge-agar, zizinto ezifana ne-pudding ezikhutshwe kwi-algae. Ukuze ziguqule i-embryo ibe ngumthi, abaphandi bongeze i-growth hormone. Amakhulu eekhonteyina zeplastiki ezimile okwetyhubhu ezinemithi emincinci ye-chestnut engenaengcambu zinokufakwa kwishelufu phantsi kwesibane esinamandla se-fluorescent. Ekugqibeleni, izazinzulu zisebenzise i-rooting hormone, zatyala imithi yazo yokuqala kwiimbiza ezizaliswe ngumhlaba, zaza zayibeka kwigumbi lokukhula elilawulwa bubushushu. Akumangalisi ukuba imithi ekwilebhu ikwimeko embi ngaphandle. Ke ngoko, abaphandi bayidibanise nemithi yasendle ukuvelisa iisampulu eziqinileyo kodwa ezisamelana novavanyo lwasentsimini.
Kwiihlobo ezimbini ezidlulileyo, uHannah Pilkey, umfundi ophumelele kwilebhu kaPowell, wandibonisa indlela yokwenza oku. Watyala ifungus ebangela ukubola kwebhaktheriya kwisitya esincinci seplastiki sepetri. Kule meko ivaliweyo, i-pathogen e-orenji ekhanyayo ibonakala ingenabungozi kwaye iphantse ibe ntle. Kunzima ukuyicinga ukuba yimbangela yokufa nokutshatyalaliswa kwabantu abaninzi.
Indlulamthi eyayiphantsi yaguqa phantsi, yaphawula inxalenye yesityalo esincinci esiziimilimitha ezintlanu, yenza imingxunya emithathu echanekileyo nge-scalpel, yaza yafaka i-blight enxebeni. Yazivala ngeplastiki. Yathi: “Kufana ne-band-aid.” Ekubeni lo ngumthi “wokulawula” ongamelaniyo, ulindele ukuba usulelo lwe-orenji lusasazeke ngokukhawuleza ukusuka kwindawo yokugonyela kwaye ekugqibeleni lujikeleze iziqu ezincinci. Undibonise imithi ethile eyayine-genes yengqolowa awayeyinyange ngaphambili. Usulelo lukhawulelwe kwi-incision, njengemilebe emincinci yeorenji ekufutshane nomlomo omncinci.
Ngowama-2013, uMaynard noPowell babhengeze impumelelo yabo kwiTransgenic Research: emva kweminyaka eli-109 isifo se-chestnut saseMelika sifunyenwe, badala iMithi ebonakala ngathi iyazikhusela, nokuba ihlaselwa ziidosi ezinkulu zefungi ezibunayo. Ukuhlonipha umxhasi wabo wokuqala nonobubele, utyale imali emalunga ne-$250,000, kwaye abaphandi bebethiya imithi ngegama lakhe. Oku kubizwa ngokuba yiDarling 58.
Intlanganiso yonyaka yeSahluko saseNew York se-American Chestnut Foundation ibibanjelwe kwihotele encinci ngaphandle kweNew Paltz ngoMgqibelo onemvula ngo-Okthobha ka-2018. Abantu abamalunga nama-50 bahlanganisene. Le ntlanganiso yayiyeyenzululwazi kwaye yayiyeye-chestnut exchange. Ngasemva kwegumbi elincinci leentlanganiso, amalungu atshintshiselana ngeengxowa zeZiploc ezizele ngamandongomane. Le ntlanganiso yayiyeyokuqala kwiminyaka engama-28 ukuba uDarling okanye uMaynard bangayi. Iingxaki zempilo zabagcina bobabini bengekho. “Besikwenza oku ixesha elide, kwaye phantse yonke iminyaka sihlala sithule ngenxa yabafileyo,” utshilo u-Allen Nichols, umongameli weklabhu. Nangona kunjalo, imeko isenethemba: umthi oguqulwe ngokwemfuza udlule iminyaka yovavanyo olunzima lokhuseleko kunye nokusebenza kakuhle.
Amalungu esahluko anike intshayelelo eneenkcukacha ngemeko yomthi ngamnye omkhulu we-chestnut ohlala eNew York State. UPilkey kunye nabanye abafundi abaphumeleleyo bazise indlela yokuqokelela nokugcina i-pollen, indlela yokukhulisa ii-chestnut phantsi kwezibane zangaphakathi, kunye nendlela yokuzalisa umhlaba ngesifo se-blight ukuze kwandiswe ubomi bemithi. Abantu ababene-cashew esifubeni, uninzi lwabo olusasaza i-pollinate baze bakhulise imithi yabo, babuze imibuzo kwizazinzulu eziselula.
UBowell walala phantsi, enxibe into ebonakala ngathi yiyunifomu engekho mthethweni kwesi sahluko: ihempe entanyeni efakwe kwijini. Usukelo lwakhe olujolise ekuzimiseleni—umsebenzi weminyaka engamashumi amathathu ocwangciswe ngokwenjongo kaHerb Darling yokubuyisela iichestnut—lunqabile phakathi kwezazinzulu zemfundo, ezihlala zenza uphando kumjikelo wenkxaso-mali weminyaka emihlanu, kwaye emva koko iziphumo ezithembisayo zinikezelwa kwabanye ukuze zithengiswe. UDon Leopold, osebenza naye kwiSebe leSayensi yeNdalo kunye namaHlathi lasePowell, undixelele oku: “Unomdla kakhulu kwaye uyaqeqesha.” “Uyanxiba amakhethini. Akaphazanyiswa zezinye izinto ezininzi. Xa uphando ekugqibeleni lwenze inkqubela phambili, abaphathi beYunivesithi yoRhulumente yaseNew York (SUNY) baqhagamshelana naye baza bacela ilungelo elilodwa lomenzi wakhe ukuze iyunivesithi ikwazi ukuxhamla kulo, kodwa uPowell wala. Uthe imithi eguqulwe ngokwemfuza ifana neechestnut zakudala kwaye ikhonza abantu. Abantu bakaPowell bakweli gumbi.
Kodwa wabalumkisa: Emva kokoyisa uninzi lwemiqobo yobugcisa, imithi eguqulwe ngokwemfuza ngoku isenokujongana nomngeni omkhulu: urhulumente wase-US. Kwiiveki ezimbalwa ezidlulileyo, uPowell wathumela ifayile yamaphepha aphantse abe yi-3,000 kwiNkonzo yoHlolo lwezeMpilo yeZilwanyana neZityalo yeSebe lezoLimo lase-US, enoxanduva lokuvuma izityalo eziguqulwe ngokwemfuza. Oku kuqalisa inkqubo yokuvuma ye-arhente: ukuphonononga isicelo, ukucela izimvo zikawonke-wonke, ukuvelisa ingxelo yempembelelo yokusingqongileyo, ukucela izimvo zikawonke-wonke kwakhona kwaye wenze isigqibo. Lo msebenzi ungathatha iminyaka eliqela. Ukuba akukho sigqibo, le projekthi inokumiswa. (Ixesha lokuqala lokuphawula esidlangalaleni alikavulwa.)
Abaphandi baceba ukungenisa ezinye izicelo kwi-Food and Drug Administration ukuze ikwazi ukujonga ukhuseleko lokutya kweenati eziguqulwe ngokwezakhi zofuzo, kwaye i-Environmental Protection Agency iza kuhlola impembelelo yalo mthi kwindalo phantsi koMthetho we-Federal Pesticide Law, ofunekayo kuzo zonke izityalo eziguqulwe ngokwezakhi zofuzo. “Oku kuyinkimbinkimbi kunesayensi!” utshilo umntu owayephakathi kwabaphulaphuli.
“Ewe.” UPowell wavuma. “Isayensi inomdla. Iyacaphukisa.” (Kamva wandixelela oku: “Ukonganyelwa zii-arhente ezintathu ezahlukeneyo kukugqithisa. Kubulala ngokwenene ukuveliswa kwezinto ezintsha ekukhuseleni okusingqongileyo.”)
Ukuqinisekisa ukuba umthi wabo ukhuselekile, iqela likaPowell lenze iimvavanyo ezahlukeneyo. Bondla i-oxalate oxidase kwi-pollen yeenyosi. Balinganise ukukhula kweefungi eziluncedo emhlabeni. Bashiye amagqabi emanzini baza baphanda impembelelo yazo kwi-t. Akukho miphumo mibi ibonwe kuyo nayiphi na kwezi zifundo-enyanisweni, eneneni, ukusebenza kokutya okuguqulwe ngokwemfuza kungcono kunamagqabi eminye imithi engaguqulwanga. Izazinzulu zithumele amantongomane kwi-Oak Ridge National Laboratory nakwezinye iilabhoratri eTennessee ukuze zihlalutywe, kwaye azifumananga mahluko ngamantongomane aveliswe yimithi engaguqulwanga.
Iziphumo ezinjalo zinokubaqinisekisa abalawuli. Ngokuqinisekileyo aziyi kubakholisa abaxhasi abachasene neeGMO. UJohn Dougherty, isazinzulu esithathe umhlala-phantsi saseMonsanto, unikezele ngeenkonzo zokubonisana kuPowell simahla. Ubize aba bachasi ngokuthi “abachasi.” Kangangamashumi eminyaka, imibutho yokusingqongileyo ibilumkisa ukuba ukuhambisa iijini phakathi kweentlobo ezinxulumene kude kuya kuba nemiphumo ebengalindelekanga, njengokudala “ukhula olukhulu” oludlula izityalo zendalo, okanye ukungenisa iijini zangaphandle ezinokubangela ukuba umninimzi abe nethuba lokuguquka okuyingozi kwi-DNA yeentlobo. Bakwaxhalabile ukuba iinkampani zisebenzisa ubunjineli bezofuzo ukufumana amalungelo obunikazi kunye nokulawula izinto eziphilayo.
Okwangoku, uPowell uthe akafumananga mali ngqo kwimithombo yoshishino, kwaye wagxininisa ukuba umnikelo wemali kwilebhu "awubotshelelwanga." Nangona kunjalo, uBrenda Jo McManama, umququzeleli wombutho obizwa ngokuba yi-"Indigenous Environmental Network", wakhankanya isivumelwano ngo-2010 apho iMonsanto yanika iChestnut Foundation kunye ne-arhente yayo esebenzisana nayo iNew York The chapter igunyazise amalungelo obunikazi amabini okuguqula imfuza. (UPowell uthe iminikelo yoshishino, kuquka iMonsanto, ibandakanya ngaphantsi kwe-4% yemali yayo yonke yomsebenzi.) UMcManama ukrokrela ukuba iMonsanto (eyafunyanwa yiBayer ngo-2018) ifuna ngasese ukufumana ilungelo lobunikazi ngokuxhasa oko kubonakala ngathi kukuphinda-phinda komthi kwixesha elizayo. Iprojekthi yokuzincama. "IMonsan imbi yonke," utshilo ngokunyanisekileyo.
UPowell uthe ilungelo lomenzi kwisivumelwano sika-2010 liphelelwe lixesha, kwaye ngokutyhila iinkcukacha zomthi wakhe kwiincwadi zesayensi, uqinisekisile ukuba umthi awunakuba nelungelo lomenzi. Kodwa waqonda ukuba oku akuyi kususa zonke iingxaki. Wathi, “Ndiyazi ukuba umntu angatsho ukuba ungumntu nje othanda iMonsanto.” “Ungenza ntoni? Akukho nto unokuyenza.”
Kwiminyaka emihlanu eyadlulayo, iinkokheli ze-American Chestnut Foundation zagqiba kwelokuba azinakufezekisa iinjongo zazo ngokudityaniswa kwezityalo zodwa, ngoko ke zamkela inkqubo kaPowell yobunjineli bemfuza. Esi sigqibo sabangela ukungavisisani. NgoMatshi 2019, umongameli weSahluko seMassachusetts-Rhode Island seSiseko, uLois Breault-Melican, warhoxa emsebenzini, ecaphula ingxoxo yeGlobal Justice Ecology Project (Global Justice Project), umbutho wobunjineli bemfuza ochasene ne-gene osekwe eBuffalo. Justice Ecology Project); umyeni wakhe uDenis Melican naye washiya ibhodi. UDennis undixelele ukuba esi sibini sasixhalabile kakhulu kukuba ii-chestnut zikaPowell zisenokuba “ziihashe zeTrojan”, ezavula indlela yokuba eminye imithi yorhwebo izaliswe ngamandla ngokusebenzisa ubunjineli bemfuza.
USusan Offutt, ingcali yezoqoqosho kwezolimo, ungusihlalo weKomiti yeSizwe yeSayensi, ubuNjineli kunye neMithi, eyaqhuba uphando nge-biotechnology yamahlathi ngo-2018. Ubonise ukuba inkqubo karhulumente yolawulo igxile kumbandela omncinci weengozi zebhayoloji, kwaye phantse ayikaze iqwalasele iingxaki ezibanzi zentlalo, ezifana nezo ziphakanyiswe ngabalweli be-GMO. “Lithini ixabiso elingaphakathi lehlathi?” ubuze, njengomzekelo wengxaki, le nkqubo ayizange isombulule. “Ngaba amahlathi aneempawu zawo? Ngaba sinoxanduva lokuziphatha lokuthathela ingqalelo oku xa sisenza izigqibo zokungenelela?”
Uninzi lwezazinzulu endithethe nazo azinasizathu sokukhathazeka ngemithi kaPowell, kuba ihlathi liye lonakala kakhulu: ukugawulwa kwemithi, ukumbiwa kwemigodi, uphuhliso, kunye nenani elingapheliyo lezinambuzane nezifo ezitshabalalisa imithi. Phakathi kwazo, ukubola kwe-chestnut kungqineke kungumsitho wokuvula. “Sisoloko singenisa izinto ezintsha ezipheleleyo,” utshilo uGary Lovett, isazi ngendalo yehlathi kwiCary Ecosystem Institute eMillbrook, eNew York. “Impembelelo ye-chestnut eguqulwe ngokwemfuza incinci kakhulu.”
UDonald Waller, ingcali yezendalo yehlathi osandul’ ukuthatha umhlala-phantsi kwiYunivesithi yaseWisconsin-Madison, waqhubeka. Wandixelela oku: “Kwelinye icala, ndichaza ulungelelwano oluncinci phakathi komngcipheko nomvuzo. Kwelinye icala, ndihlala ndikrwela iintloko zam ngenxa yomngcipheko.” Lo mthi uguqulwe ngokwemfuza unokuba yingozi ehlathini. Ngokwahlukileyo koko, “iphepha elingaphantsi komvuzo lizele yi-inki.” Uthe i-chestnut exhathisa ukubuna ekugqibeleni iya kuphumelela eli hlathi lixakekileyo. Abantu bafuna ithemba. Abantu bafuna iimpawu.”
UPowell uhlala ezolile, kodwa abantu abathandabuzayo ngobunjineli bemfuza banokumshukumisa. Wathi: “Azinantsingiselo kum.” “Azisekelwe kwisayensi.” Xa iinjineli zivelisa iimoto okanye ii-smartphones ezingcono, akukho mntu ukhalazayo, ngoko ke ufuna ukwazi ukuba yintoni engalunganga ngemithi eyilwe ngcono. “Esi sisixhobo esinokunceda,” utshilo uPowell. “Kutheni nisithi asinakusebenzisa esi sixhobo? Singasebenzisa i-screwdriver yePhillips, kodwa hayi i-screwdriver eqhelekileyo, kwaye ngokuchaseneyo?”
Ekuqaleni kukaOkthobha ka-2018, ndahamba noPowell ukuya kwisikhululo sasemasimini esithambileyo emazantsi eSyracuse. Wayenethemba lokuba ikamva leentlobo ze-chestnut zaseMelika liza kukhula. Indawo leyo iphantse yaba yintlango, kwaye yenye yeendawo ezimbalwa apho imithi ivumelekileyo ukukhula khona. Amasimi amade epayini kunye ne-larch, imveliso yeprojekthi yophando esele ishiywe, athambekele empuma, kude nomoya ovuthuzayo, nto leyo enika loo ndawo umvakalelo woyikekayo kancinci.
Umphandi uAndrew Newhouse kwilebhu kaPowell sele esebenza komnye wemithi emihle kakhulu kwizazinzulu, i-chestnut yasendle evela kumzantsi weVirginia. Lo mthi umalunga neenyawo ezingama-25 ubude kwaye ukhula kwigadi ye-chestnut ehlelwe ngokungacwangciswanga ejikelezwe lucingo lweenyamakazi olude oluziimitha ezili-10. Ingxowa yesikolo yayibotshelelwe eziphelweni zamasebe athile omthi. UNewhouse uchaze ukuba ingxowa yeplastiki engaphakathi yayibanjwe kwi-pollen yeDarling 58 eyayicelwe zizazinzulu ngoJuni, ngelixa ingxowa yentsimbi yangaphandle yayigcina ii-squirrels kude ne-burrs ezikhulayo. Lonke ulungiselelo luphantsi kweliso elibukhali liSebe lezoLimo lase-United States; ngaphambi kokuba kususwe imithetho, i-pollen okanye amantongomane avela kwimithi ene-genes ezongeziweyo kwi-fence okanye kwilebhu yomphandi kufuneka ahlulwe.
UNewhouse wasebenzisa izikere zokuthena ezirhoxayo kumasebe. Etsala ngentambo, incakuba yaphuka yaza ingxowa yawa. UNewhouse wakhawuleza waya kwisebe elilandelayo elalifakwe ingxowa waza waphinda le nkqubo. UPowell waqokelela iingxowa eziwileyo waza wazibeka kwingxowa enkulu yeplastiki yenkunkuma, njengokuba wayephatha izinto ezinobungozi kwizinto eziphilayo.
Emva kokubuyela kwilebhu, uNewhouse noHannah Pilkey bakhupha ingxowa baza bakhupha ngokukhawuleza amantongomane amdaka kwi-green burrs. Bayaqaphela ukuba amantongomane angangeni eluswini, nto leyo eyingozi emsebenzini kuphando lwe-chestnut. Ngaphambili, babewathanda onke amantongomane axabisekileyo aguqulwe ngokwemfuza. Ngeli xesha, ekugqibeleni babenawo amaninzi: angaphezu kwe-1,000. “Sonke senza imidaniso emincinci eyonwabisayo,” utshilo uPirkey.
Kamva ngaloo mva kwemini, uPowell wathabatha iitshipsthi waya nazo eofisini kaNeil Patterson ekwigumbi lokwamkela iindwendwe. YayiluSuku lwabantu boMthonyama (uSuku lukaColumbus), kwaye uPatterson, uMlawuli oNcedisayo weZiko le-ESF labantu boMthonyama kunye neNdalo, wayesandula ukubuya kwikota yekhampasi, apho wayekhokela khona umboniso wokutya kwabantu bomthonyama. Abantwana bakhe ababini nomtshana wakhe badlala kwikhompyutha eofisini. Wonke umntu waxobula iitshipsthi waza watya iitshipsthi. “Ziseluhlaza kancinci,” utshilo uPowell ngokuzisola.
Isipho sikaPowell sisetyenziselwa iinjongo ezininzi. Usasaza imbewu, enethemba lokusebenzisa inethiwekhi kaPatterson ukutyala ii-chestnut kwiindawo ezintsha, apho zinokufumana khona i-pollen eguqulwe ngokwemfuza kwiminyaka embalwa. Ukwabandakanyeke kwi-diplomacy ye-chestnut enobuchule.
Xa uPatterson waqeshwa yi-ESF ngo-2014, wafumanisa ukuba uPowell wayezama imithi eyenziwe ngemfuza, eyayikude kakhulu ne-Onondaga Nation Resident Territory. Le yokugqibela ikwihlathi elikude kakhulu neSyracuse. UPatterson waqonda ukuba ukuba le projekthi iyaphumelela, ii-genes zokumelana nezifo ekugqibeleni ziya kungena kulo mhlaba zize zihlangane nee-chestnut eziseleyo apho, ngaloo ndlela zitshintsha ihlathi elibalulekileyo kubuntu buka-Onodaga. Weva nangeenkxalabo eziqhuba abaxhasi, kuquka abanye abavela kuluntu lwemveli, ukuba bachase izinto eziphilayo eziguqulwe ngemfuza kwenye indawo. Umzekelo, ngo-2015, isizwe samaYurok savala ukubhukishwa kwe-GMO eMntla California ngenxa yenkxalabo malunga nokuba kunokwenzeka ukuba izityalo zaso zingcoliswe kunye nokuloba iisalmon.
“Ndiyaqonda ukuba oku kwenzeke kuthi apha; ubuncinane sifanele ukuba nencoko,” utshilo uPatterson kum. Kwintlanganiso ye-Arhente yoKhuseleko lweNdalo ka-2015 eyayibanjwe yi-ESF, uPowell wanikela intetho eyayicwangciswe kakuhle kumalungu abantu bomthonyama baseNew York. Emva kwentetho, uPatterson wakhumbula ukuba iinkokeli ezininzi zathi: “Masityale imithi!” Inzondelelo yabo yammangalisa uPatterson. Wathi: “Bendingalindelanga.”
Nangona kunjalo, iincoko zamva nje zabonisa ukuba bambalwa kubo abakhumbula indima eyayidlalwa ngumthi we-chestnut kwinkcubeko yawo yemveli. Uphando olulandelayo lukaPatterson lwamxelela ukuba ngexesha apho kwakukho iingxwabangxwaba zentlalo kunye nokutshatyalaliswa kwendalo ngexesha elinye, urhulumente wase-US wayesebenzisa isicwangciso esikhulu sokususa izinto ngokunyanzelwa kunye nokudibanisa izityalo, kwaye ubhubhane wawufikile. Njengezinye izinto ezininzi, inkcubeko ye-chestnut yasekuhlaleni kule ndawo yanyamalala. UPatterson ukwafumanise ukuba iimbono ngobunjineli bemfuza zahlukile kakhulu. Umenzi we-lacrosse stick ka-Onoda u-Alfie Jacques unomdla wokwenza iintonga ngomthi we-chestnut kwaye uxhasa le projekthi. Abanye bacinga ukuba umngcipheko mkhulu kakhulu kwaye ngenxa yoko bayayichasa imithi.
UPatterson uyaziqonda ezi mbono zimbini. Kutshanje uthe kum: “Kufana neselfowuni nomntwana wam.” Ubonise ukuba umntwana wakhe ubuya ekhaya evela esikolweni ngenxa yobhubhane we-coronavirus. “Ngenye imini ndaphuma ndisebenza nzima; ukuze bahlale benxibelelana, bayafunda. Ngosuku olulandelayo, ngathi, masizilahle ezo zinto.” Kodwa iminyaka yencoko noPowell yanciphisa ukungaqiniseki kwakhe. Kungekudala, wafunda ukuba inzala eqhelekileyo yemithi engama-58 yeDarling ayizukuba ne-genes ezangeniswayo, oko kuthetha ukuba ii-chestnut zasendle zokuqala ziya kuqhubeka zikhula ehlathini. UPatterson uthe oku kususe ingxaki enkulu.
Ngexesha lotyelelo lwethu ngo-Okthobha, undixelele ukuba isizathu sokuba angakwazi ukuxhasa ngokupheleleyo iprojekthi yeGM kukuba wayengazi ukuba uPowell wayebakhathalele na abantu abasebenzisana nomthi okanye umthi. “Andazi ukuba yintoni emlungeleyo,” utshilo uPatterson, ecofa isifuba sakhe. Uthe kuphela ukuba ubudlelwane phakathi komntu ne-chestnut bungabuyiselwa, apho kuyimfuneko ukuphinda ufumane lo mthi.
Ngenxa yesi sizathu, uthe uceba ukusebenzisa amandongomane awanikwa nguPowell ukwenza i-chestnut pudding kunye neoyile. Uza kuzisa ezi zitya kummandla wase-Onondaga aze ameme abantu ukuba baphinde bafumane iincasa zazo zakudala. Uthe: “Ndiyathemba ukuba kunjalo, kufana nokubulisa umhlobo wam wakudala. Kufuneka nje ungene ebhasini apho wawumise khona kwixesha elidlulileyo.”
UPowell wafumana isipho se-$3.2 yezigidi kwiTempleton World Charity Foundation ngoJanuwari, esiza kuvumela uPowell ukuba aqhubeke njengoko ejikeleza iiarhente ezilawulayo kwaye ekhulisa ingqwalasela yakhe yophando ukusuka kwi-genetics ukuya kwinyani yokwenyani yokulungiswa komhlaba wonke. Ukuba urhulumente uyamnika intsikelelo, uPowell kunye nososayensi abavela kwi-American Chestnut Foundation baya kuqala ukuyivumela ukuba idubule. I-pollen kunye ne-genes yayo eyongezelelweyo iya kutshayelwa okanye ityibilikiswe kwizikhongozeli ezilindileyo zeminye imithi, kwaye ikamva le-chestnut eguqulwe ngokwezakhi zofuzo liya kuvela ngokuzimeleyo kwimeko-bume yovavanyo elawulwayo. Ukucinga ukuba i-gene inokugcinwa endle nakwilebhu, oku akuqinisekanga, kwaye iya kusasazeka ehlathini-le yindawo yendalo izazinzulu eziyinqwenelayo kodwa abantu abanomdla bayayoyika.
Emva kokuba umthi we-chestnut uphumlile, ungawuthenga omnye? Ewe, utshilo uNewhouse, yayilicebo elo. Abaphandi bebebuzwa veki nganye ukuba imithi ifumaneka nini.
Kwihlabathi apho uPowell, uNewhouse kunye noogxa bakhe bahlala khona, kulula ukuziva ngathi lonke ilizwe lilindele umthi wabo. Nangona kunjalo, ukuqhuba umgama omfutshane ukusuka efama yophando udlula embindini wedolophu yaseSyracuse kukhumbuza indlela utshintsho olukhulu oluye lwenzeka ngayo kwindalo nakuluntu ukusukela oko kwanyamalala ii-chestnut zaseMelika. I-Chestnut Heights Drive ikwidolophu encinci emantla eSyracuse. Yindlela eqhelekileyo yokuhlala eneendlela ezibanzi zokungena, ingca ecocekileyo, kwaye ngamanye amaxesha imithi emincinci yokuhombisa enendawo engaphambili. . Inkampani yemithi ayifuni ukuvuselelwa kwee-chestnut. Uqoqosho lwezolimo oluzimeleyo olusekelwe kwii-chestnut luye lwanyamalala ngokupheleleyo. Phantse akukho mntu ukhupha ii-nuts ezithambileyo nezimnandi kwi-burrs ezinzima kakhulu. Uninzi lwabantu lusenokungazi nokuba akukho nto ilahlekileyo ehlathini.
Ndema ndaza ndatya isidlo sasemini ecaleni kweLake Onondaga phantsi komthunzi womthi omkhulu womlotha omhlophe. Lo mthi wawuzaliswe ziingcuka eziluhlaza okwesibhakabhaka ezikhanyayo. Ndiyayibona imingxunya eyenziwe zizinambuzane ezikwixolo. Uqala ukulahlekelwa ngamagqabi awo kwaye usenokufa kwaye udilike emva kweminyaka embalwa. Ukufika nje ekhaya eMaryland, ndadlula kumawaka emithi yomlotha efileyo, enamasebe angenanto aphakama ecaleni kwendlela.
E-Appalachia, le nkampani ikhuphe imithi kwindawo enkulu yaseBitlahua ukuze ifumane amalahle ngezantsi. Intliziyo yelizwe lamalahle ihambelana nentliziyo yelizwe langaphambili le-chestnut. I-American Chestnut Foundation isebenze nemibutho eyatyala imithi kwimigodi yamalahle elahliweyo, kwaye imithi ye-chestnut ngoku ikhula kumawaka eehektare zomhlaba ochaphazelekileyo yintlekele. Le mithi iyinxalenye nje ye-hybrids enganyangekiyo kwi-bacterial blight, kodwa inokufana nesizukulwana esitsha semithi esinokukhuphisana nehlathi elikhulu lamandulo ngenye imini.
NgoMeyi ophelileyo, uxinano lwekhabhoni dayokhsayidi emoyeni lufikelele kwi-414.8 parts per million okokuqala. Njengeminye imithi, ubunzima obungengomanzi be-chestnut yaseMelika bumalunga nesiqingatha sekhabhoni. Zimbalwa izinto onokuzikhulisa kumhlaba onokufunxa ikhabhoni emoyeni ngokukhawuleza kunomthi we-chestnut okhulayo. Ngenxa yoku, inqaku elapapashwa kwiWall Street Journal kunyaka ophelileyo lacebisa, “Masibe nenye ifama ye-chestnut.”